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Commentary |
1 Department of Biophysics, Max-Planck Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstrasse 29, D-69120 Heidelberg Germany
2 Department of Cell Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710 USA
* Present address: Department of Chemistry, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755 USA
Author for correspondence (e-mail: endow001{at}mc.duke.edu)
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SUMMARY |
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 Top SUMMARY IntroductionCytoskeletal motorsMyosinKinesin motorsMotor-microtubule interactionsKinesin and myosin motor...Further uncertaintiesFuture directionsREFERENCES |
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Key words: Molecular motor, Structure/function, Conformational changes, Kinesin, Myosin
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Introduction |
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TopSUMMARYIntroductionCytoskeletal motorsMyosinKinesin motorsMotor-microtubule interactionsKinesin and myosin motor...Further uncertaintiesFuture directionsREFERENCES |
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Cytoskeletal motors |
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TopSUMMARYIntroductionCytoskeletal motorsMyosinKinesin motorsMotor-microtubule interactionsKinesin and myosin motor...Further uncertaintiesFuture directionsREFERENCES |
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-phosphate, and then transmitting this information along a pathway of increasingly larger conformational changes that culminates in a force-generating event. A prevailing idea is that one or more steps of ATP binding or hydrolysis induces small conformational changes in the protein that, under load, create strain (Howard, 2001). The strain is relieved by further changes in the motor that produce force and then amplify the force, resulting in movement of the motor along its filament. The structural elements that undergo strain are likely to have spring-like or elastic properties that allow them to extend or rotate, and then recoil back into their original conformation (Howard, 2001). Movements of the motor catalytic core are further expected to involve the highly conserved switch regions (Kull et al., 1996; Sablin et al., 1996), switch I and switch II, so-named because of their structural homology to regions of G proteins that move upon nucleotide hydrolysis and exchange (Sprang, 1997). Thus, an understanding of the motor mechanism is likely to come only after workers have identified the spring-like or elastic elements within the motor, together with the force-producing structural changes in the motor and the steps in the hydrolysis cycle at which they occur. The two best-studied cytoskeletal motors, myosin and kinesin, are dimeric proteins that have two catalytic domains joined by a coiled-coil rod or stalk. These two motor proteins and other highly related proteins in their respective families contain a central core of structural elements that are remarkably similar to one another (Kull et al., 1996) (Fig. 1). Despite this structural homology, however, there are indications that the kinesin motors differ substantially from the myosins in their mechanism of function. A fundamental difference is the nucleotide-dependent interactions of the motors with their filament: myosin bound to ATP is weakly bound to or detached from actin, whereas kinesin-ATP is strongly bound to microtubules. Conversely, myosin-ADP is strongly bound to actin, whereas kinesin-ADP is weakly bound to or detached from microtubules. A further basic difference between the kinesins and myosins is that myosin hydrolyzes ATP while detached from actin, whereas kinesin hydrolyses ATP while attached to the microtubule. But, for both motors, the rate-limiting step in the hydrolysis cycle is accelerated by binding of the motor to its filament, which results in a characteristic actin- or microtubule-activated ATPase activity that underlies the ability of the motor to move along its filament.
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Myosin |
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TopSUMMARYIntroductionCytoskeletal motorsMyosinKinesin motorsMotor-microtubule interactionsKinesin and myosin motor...Further uncertaintiesFuture directionsREFERENCES |
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/ß subdomain of 67 residues that includes the first three turns of the helical rod (Fig. 1), is thought to convert movements at the nucleotide-binding cleft of the motor, which are transmitted by the adjacent switch II or ‘relay’ helix and the SH1 helix, into the swinging of the lever arm. The SH1 helix, which is also adjacent to the converter, is intact in the near-rigor and transition structures but disordered in the detached form, which has been interpreted to be a motor-ATP state (Houdusse et al., 1999). This mobility of the SH1 helix reflects its role in transmitting and directing movements of the relay helix to the converter domain and lever arm. Structural changes at the nucleotide-binding cleft of myosin are thus coupled to movements of the relay helix, SH1 helix, converter domain and the lever arm (Fig. 1). The power stroke is thought to correspond to the swinging of the lever arm (Rayment et al., 1993a; Rayment et al., 1993b); however, the structural elements that undergo strain and the conformational changes in myosin that produce force have not yet been identified.
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Kinesin motors |
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TopSUMMARYIntroductionCytoskeletal motorsMyosinKinesin motorsMotor-microtubule interactionsKinesin and myosin motor...Further uncertaintiesFuture directionsREFERENCES |
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4 and 5 are displaced in rat kinesin relative to human kinesin (Fig. 3A,B). Similarly, the Kar3 motor shows a change in the length of helix 4 compared with human kinesin or Ncd - the helix is nine residues (two turns) longer than in the other two motors (Gulick et al., 1998), indicating that helix 4, the switch II (or relay) helix of the kinesins, can change in length as well as orientation, and could undergo large changes in conformation during the hydrolysis cycle. Another difference in the kinesin-ADP models is the structure of the neck linker, the region that joins the coiled-coil stalk to the catalytic core: the neck linker is disordered in human kinesin (Kull et al., 1996), but it is visible in rat kinesin, forming ß-strands that interact with the ß-sheet of the motor core (Kozielski et al., 1997; Sack et al., 1997). The transition from a disordered to a visible state indicates that the neck linker is inherently mobile and could therefore play a critical role in the motor mechanism.
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4, the relay helix, is tilted by 20° and the first two turns of the helix are unwound (Fig. 3D). The neck linker is also docked against the catalytic core of the motor rather than disordered and absent from the model as in the human kinesin-ADP structure (Kull et al., 1996).
The neck linker conformation of the KIF1A-AMP·PCP structure does not differ, however, from that of the rat kinesin atomic models (Kozielski et al., 1997; Sack et al., 1997). Furthermore, the KIF1A-AMP·PCP structure lacks several important interactions that are a prerequisite for a hydrolysis-competent state (Fig. 4). In both G proteins and myosin, the NTP-bound and transition states show three invariant interactions between conserved switch I and switch II residues and the nucleotide (Fig. 4D): (1) the amide nitrogen from the conserved glycine residue in switch II (DIXGFE in myosin) forms a hydrogen bond with an oxygen from the -phosphate; (2) a conserved serine (or threonine) residue from switch I (SSRFG in myosin) forms a strong hydrogen bond from its -oxygen to the Mg2+ ion and a weaker one to the -phosphate of the nucleotide; and (3) the same serine or threonine forms a hydrogen bond from its amide nitrogen to an oxygen on the -phosphate. Given that the KIF1A-AMP·PCP structure does not show any of these features, it probably represents a collision ATP complex - a first step in ATP binding that does not produce major conformational changes (Cooke, 1986) - rather than a catalytically active state similar to Ras-GMP·PNP (PDB 5P21) (Pai et al., 1990) or myosin-VO4 (PDB 1VOM) (Smith and Rayment, 1996).
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Motor-microtubule interactions |
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TopSUMMARYIntroductionCytoskeletal motorsMyosinKinesin motorsMotor-microtubule interactionsKinesin and myosin motor...Further uncertaintiesFuture directionsREFERENCES |
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20° in the AMP·PNP state compared with the ADP state, suggesting that the motor undergoes a directional rotation between these two states. However, the difference in motor orientation between the two states is slight, and this, together with the low resolution of the ADP density map (22 Å) and the absence of structural features in the central region of the motor that could be used as landmarks to orient the motor, makes it difficult to demonstrate unequivocally that such a rotation occurs. The KIF1A-ADP and KIF1A-AMP·PCP crystal structures have also been fitted into the cryoEM density maps - but the crystal structures do not fit precisely into the density maps, and structural elements can be seen to protrude from the electron density even though the fittings have been optimized to minimize these effects. This indicates that the positions or conformations of at least some of the structural elements in the microtubule-bound motors differ from the atomic models. This is not unexpected, since the crystal structures of the motor are not complexed with tubulin and are highly unlikely to be in the same states as the motor bound to microtubules and imaged by cryoEM. The authors interpret their fittings of the atomic structures into the cryoEM maps to show that the rotational movement they observe is centered around helix 4, the relay helix, which rotates 20° between the ADP and AMP·PCP atomic models. They propose that, when the motor is bound to the microtubule, the motor itself rotates around the helix, which remains fixed in place (Kikkawa et al., 2001). Kikkawa et al. propose that the rotational movement of the catalytic core drives docking of the neck linker onto the motor core and is accompanied by a displacement of the motor towards the plus end of the microtubule, thus accounting for the plus-end-directed movement of KIF1A and other kinesin motors (Kikkawa et al., 2001). They further propose that a similar rotation of the catalytic core of Ncd, a kinesin-related motor that has the opposite directionality, disrupts an interaction between the neck and the motor core that drives movement of Ncd towards the minus end. These interpretations of the static crystal structures provide models for motor function that require confirmation by further experimental work. Several aspects of the proposed mechanisms lend themselves to testing - for example, by biochemical analysis of mutants or spectrophotometric analysis of motors containing fluorescent probes at specific sites (Xing et al., 2000) to determine whether the proposed rotation occurs during force production by the motor and is therefore relevant to motor function. It is also of interest to determine whether the rotation, if it occurs, is coupled to directional movement of the motor. Such a rotation could represent a basic force-producing movement of the motor with the relay helix acting like a spring or elastic element that undergoes strain and enables the motor to produce force. If so, the movement would differ from the piston-like movement of the relay helix thought to occur in myosin (Dominguez et al., 1998) (Fig. 3E,F) and proposed to drive the swinging of the lever arm (Vale and Milligan, 2000). Although the relay helix could serve as the spring or elastic element involved in force generation in both kinesin and myosin, the mechanistic details of force generation would differ. The rotational movement thought to occur in KIF1A could represent an ancient conformational movement inherited from the G proteins, which evolved into the kinesin and myosin motor mechanisms. This could explain the non-processive, plus-end-directed motility of neck-mutated Ncd-kinesin and Ncd constructs (Endow and Waligora, 1998; Case et al., 2000) that appears to be intrinsic to the kinesin motor domain. Amplification by the neck and/or neck linker of such an initial strain-generating movement could direct motor movement towards the microtubule plus or minus end.
The salt-bridge mutants provide further information about the changes that occur in the kinesin motors in states subsequent to the ADP state. Biochemical analysis of the mutant motors demonstrates that they can hydrolyze ATP and bind to microtubules but show no microtubule-activated ATPase activity (Yun et al., 2001), which is essential for movement of the motor along the microtubule. Activation of the motor ATPase is thought to occur in the kinesin motors by accelerating the rate-limiting step, under nonsaturating microtubule concentrations, of ADP release (Hackney, 1988). Because the mutants can bind to microtubules but binding to microtubules fails to activate their ATPase, the mutants ‘decouple’ (Ruppel and Spudich, 1996) microtubule- and nucleotide-binding by the motor (Song and Endow, 1998). The decoupling of these two essential motor activities is interpreted to be due to a block in communication between the microtubule- and nucleotide-binding regions of the motor (Yun et al., 2001). Together with a previous mutant in which microtubule-activated ATPase activity is blocked (Song and Endow, 1998), the salt-bridge mutants define a structural signaling pathway within the motor for ATPase activation by microtubules. This pathway extends from helix 4, the relay helix, at the microtubule-binding region of the motor to the R-E salt bridge between switch I and switch II to the active site. The mutants further show that direct interactions between switch I and switch II are required for activation of the motor ATPase by microtubules.
The salt-bridge mutants are trapped in states that alter the ability of the motor to bind to microtubules: one of the mutants (RA) binds weakly to microtubules compared with the wild type, whereas the other (EA) binds tightly (Yun et al., 2001). The regions of the motors that are altered in the crystal structures identify structural elements that are likely to be involved in weak and strong binding of the motor to microtubules. The structures of the switch II loop and helix differ between the RA and EA atomic models, and this may be responsible for differences in the interactions of the motors with microtubules - the switch II helix is longer by one turn in the RA mutant compared with one of the two available wild-type structures, and the switch II loop is visible in the RA mutant rather than disordered, as in the EA mutant. Stabilization of the switch II loop and the N-terminus of the switch II helix might interfere sterically with microtubule binding, causing the weak binding of the RA mutant to microtubules. Loop L8 is displaced slightly in the EA mutant relative to its position in the wild-type motor. This difference, although small, may reflect an inherent difference in loop mobility that causes the mutant motor to bind more tightly to microtubules than the wild type. Previous studies implicate the switch II loop/helix and loop L8 in binding to tubulin (Woehlke et al., 1997; Alonso et al., 1998; Hirose et al., 1999; Kikkawa et al., 2000), supporting these interpretations.
The atomic structures of the salt-bridge mutants further show that changes in the water-mediated coordination of the nucleotide at the active site occur when the salt bridge between switch I and switch II is disrupted (Yun et al., 2001), as noted above. The movements of switch I residues toward the nucleotide, although <1 Å, disrupt coordination of the Mg2+ ion by water molecules. This could result in loss of Mg2+, which would be followed immediately by ADP release. Thus, the rate-limiting step in nucleotide hydrolysis would be overcome (Hackney, 1988), explaining the activation of the motor ATPase by microtubules.
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Kinesin and myosin motor mechanisms – a comparison |
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TopSUMMARYIntroductionCytoskeletal motorsMyosinKinesin motorsMotor-microtubule interactionsKinesin and myosin motor...Further uncertaintiesFuture directionsREFERENCES |
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-phosphate. When kinesin does this, there is likely to be a movement of switch II toward the nucleotide, although perhaps not so large as that in myosin, since switch II of kinesin is already intermediate in position between that of myosin in its OPEN and CLOSED forms. It also seems likely that this conformation will be seen only when the motor is complexed with microtubules (as noted above) or in a mutant that somehow mimics the binding of the motor to microtubules. The requirement for stabilization of motor movements by the microtubule is a crucial point for the kinesin motors - it not only explains why a true ATP state has not yet been seen in the crystal structures but is important for the interpretation of available structures. Mutants that disrupt the salt bridge between switch I and switch II inhibit or block the filament-activated ATPase activity of both myosin and the kinesin motors (Onishi et al., 1998; Furch et al., 1999; Yun et al., 2001). This indicates that direct interactions between switch I and switch II are needed for activation of the myosin and kinesin motor ATPase. Disruption of the salt bridge in myosin appears to interfere with the formation of the catalytically active CLOSED conformation (Kliche et al., 2001), shifting the mutants toward the switch II OPEN conformation, whereas it causes the kinesins to move towards a switch I OPEN conformation. The disrupted salt bridge of both myosin and the kinesins thus appears to permit movements of the switch I and switch II regions that are prevented when the salt bridge is formed (Geeves and Holmes, 1999; Yun et al., 2001). This could prevent the mutants from populating a state essential for ATPase activation in the wild-type motors.
Although it is unclear how far the mechanistic similarities between kinesin and myosin extend, the following movements are expected to occur during the kinesin ATPase cycle on the basis of the structural changes observed in the myosins and G proteins. As noted above, the new kinesin structures show a conformation predicted to occur in myosin that we refer to as switch I OPEN, switch II OPEN (F.J.K. and K.C. Holmes, unpublished). Nucleotide hydrolysis in both myosin and G proteins requires both switch elements to be CLOSED. When kinesin is not bound to microtubules, the microtubule-binding region and switch II appear to be uncoupled from one another (see below), and it seems likely that the link between these regions is established upon microtubule binding, perhaps through the ordering of loop 11 by interactions with the microtubule. If binding to the microtubule causes switch II to become even more OPEN, this, in combination with the already OPEN switch I, could result in destabilization and release of the bound Mg·ADP. Subsequent binding of ATP might then pull switch II into a CLOSED position, in which a hydrogen bond forms between the invariant switch II glycine (DLAGSE) and the -phosphate, thereby causing the switch II helix at the microtubule-binding site to change in conformation and the neck linker to dock against (or undock from) the motor core (Schief and Howard, 2001). In myosin, the conserved salt bridge between switch I and switch II stabilizes the CLOSED conformation, which is necessary for ATP hydrolysis. The role of the salt bridge in the kinesins is less certain - the salt bridge is observed in some, but not all, motor-ADP crystal structures and, in cases in which it forms, its geometry is imperfect. It is not clear whether a perfect salt bridge forms when the motor is in a hydrolysis-competent state, since the salt bridge is not formed in the closest structure yet to an ATP state, KIF1A-AMP·PCP, or in the Kar3 salt-bridge mutants, which can be interpreted to be transitions towards an ATP-bound state. If the switch I and switch II elements in the hydrolysis-competent conformation of kinesin assume the same conformation as they do in myosin, the salt bridge would form with perfect geometry, leading to the formation of a hydrolysis-competent CLOSED conformation similar to that of myosin and the G proteins. However, the switch I region of kinesin has never been observed in a conformation that resembles switch I CLOSED of myosin and could function in a different manner, reflecting differences that exist between myosin and the kinesins in the motor-filament state during the hydrolysis step. Formation of the salt bridge, even with imperfect geometry, when the motor is detached from the filament may stabilize the unbound motor, whereas the absence of the salt bridge may be needed to permit changes in the active site when the motor is bound to its filament.
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Further uncertainties |
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TopSUMMARYIntroductionCytoskeletal motorsMyosinKinesin motorsMotor-microtubule interactionsKinesin and myosin motor...Further uncertaintiesFuture directionsREFERENCES |
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Another way of phrasing this question is what is the structure of the neck linker of kinesin in a conformationally distinct ATP state? A recent model proposes that the neck linker docks against the catalytic core when the motor binds to ATP and microtubules, directing the motor towards the plus end (Rice et al., 1999). However, evidence supporting this model is controversial (see Schief and Howard, 2001), and more work is needed to determine its validity. It should also be noted that the KIF1A structures solved were those of a chimera consisting of the neck linker from conventional kinesin fused to the KIF1A catalytic core (Kikkawa et al., 2001). It is therefore still uncertain exactly how the native KIF1A protein behaves, especially given its unusual nature. KIF1A has been reported to move in a biased diffusional manner along the microtubule (Okada and Hirokawa, 1999), rather than by alternative binding of two heads like conventional kinesin (Howard, 2001), and it is the alternative binding of the kinesin heads that the neck linker docking and undocking are thought to regulate. Whether KIF1A is regulated by nucleotide binding in the same way as conventional kinesin is unclear, given its atypical mechanism of motility.
Moreover, the structural changes observed in helices 4 and 5 of KIF1A-AMP·PCP are uncoupled to changes in the nucleotide-binding site. In myosin, the C-terminal end of the relay helix is linked to the converter domain (Fig. 1) by strong hydrophobic interactions and the two move as a rigid body - when the relay helix moves, so does the converter, and a tightly coupled pathway of conformational change connects the relay helix/converter to the nucleotide-binding site. If -phosphate is present at the active site, the relay helix is pulled up and in, the helix bends, the converter rotates, and the lever arm swings. These movements occur even in detached motors not bound to actin, in which they function to reprime the myosin head to position it for binding to the next actin site. In the kinesins, there is a short loop (L12) between helix 4, the relay helix, and helix 5 that differs from the large actin-binding domain inserted at this site in myosin. The movement of the two helices appears to be coupled in the KIF1A-AMP·PCP structure (Kikkawa et al., 2001), but the link between the nucleotide-binding site and the two helices, which form part of the motor interface with the microtubule (Woehlke et al., 1997; Alonso et al., 1998; Hirose et al., 1999; Kikkawa et al., 2000), is weak in motors not bound to microtubules. That is, the changes in helices 4 and 5 at the microtubule-binding site of KIF1A appear to be unlinked to structural changes at the active site, at least in the absence of microtubules. The Kar3 uncoupling and salt-bridge mutants (Yun et al., 2001) show that a pathway of structural changes from helix 4 to the active site does exist in the kinesins, but the structural details of this pathway are not evident from the KIF1A-AMP·PCP crystal structure. The conformational changes described by Kikkawa et al. could therefore be a result of crystal contacts affecting the position of the helices, rather than the nucleotide state inducing a conformational change (Kikkawa et al., 2001). This is also a likely explanation for the differences in the positions of helix 4 and 5 observed in the rat and human kinesin structures (Sack et al., 1999). Variable regions in different crystal structures can be indicative of movements that occur in vivo, however. The observed movements of helices 4 and 5 could therefore approximate actual conformational changes that occur during the kinesin cycle, although they may also differ significantly in detail and magnitude. The true ATP state of kinesin remains to be visualized.
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Future directions |
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TopSUMMARYIntroductionCytoskeletal motorsMyosinKinesin motorsMotor-microtubule interactionsKinesin and myosin motor...Further uncertaintiesFuture directionsREFERENCES |
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REFERENCES |
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  K. A. Dietrich, C. V. Sindelar, P. D. Brewer, K. H. Downing, C. R. Cremo, and S. E. Rice The kinesin-1 motor protein is regulated by a direct interaction of its head and tail PNAS, July 1, 2008; 105(26): 8938 - 8943. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 J. C. Hoeng, S. C. Dawson, S. A. House, M. S. Sagolla, J. K. Pham, J. J. Mancuso, J. Lowe, and W. Z. Cande High-Resolution Crystal Structure and In Vivo Function of a Kinesin-2 Homologue in Giardia intestinalis Mol. Biol. Cell, July 1, 2008; 19(7): 3124 - 3137. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 N. Naber, T. J. Purcell, E. Pate, and R. Cooke Dynamics of the Nucleotide Pocket of Myosin Measured by Spin-Labeled Nucleotides Biophys. J., January 1, 2007; 92(1): 172 - 184. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Q. Shao and Y. Q. Gao On the hand-over-hand mechanism of kinesin PNAS, May 23, 2006; 103(21): 8072 - 8077. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 S. D. Auerbach and K. A. Johnson Kinetic Effects of Kinesin Switch I and Switch II Mutations J. Biol. Chem., November 4, 2005; 280(44): 37061 - 37068. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. S. Rosenfeld, J. Xing, G. M. Jefferson, and P. H. King Docking and Rolling, a Model of How the Mitotic Motor Eg5 Works J. Biol. Chem., October 21, 2005; 280(42): 35684 - 35695. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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W. Zheng and B. R. Brooks Probing the Local Dynamics of Nucleotide-Binding Pocket Coupled to the Global Dynamics: Myosin versus Kinesin Biophys. J., July 1, 2005; 89(1): 167 - 178. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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L. M. Klumpp, A. T. Mackey, C. M. Farrell, J. M. Rosenberg, and S. P. Gilbert A Kinesin Switch I Arginine to Lysine Mutation Rescues Microtubule Function J. Biol. Chem., October 3, 2003; 278(40): 39059 - 39067. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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