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Fig. 1. Responses of cells with different membrane properties to dcEFs. (A) A simple cell in the resting state has a negative membrane potential. (B) A cell with negligible voltage-gated conductance exposed to a dcEF. The membrane towards the anode is hyperpolarized and attracts Ca²⁺ by passive electrochemical diffusion. Consequently, this side of the cell contracts, thereby propelling the cell towards the cathode. (C) A cell with voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels (VGCCs). Channels near the cathode (depolarized) side open, thereby allowing Ca²⁺ influx. In such a cell, intracellular Ca²⁺ levels will rise both on the anodal side (as in B) and on the cathodal side, owing to depolarization-induced activation of the VGCCs. The direction of cell movement, if any, then depends on the balance between the opposing contractile forces.

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